Miller (2008a), for instance, reported that the frequency of energy drink consumption in US undergraduates was positively associated with smoking, drinking, alcohol problems, use of illicit prescription drugs and marijuana, sexual risk-taking, fighting, seatbelt omission, and taking risks on a dare. Energy drinks have also been associated with behavioural problems ( Richards et al., 2015a), and a number of serious health complications ( Reissig et al., 2009).Ī potential avenue by which energy drink use may negatively affect health is through their association with risk-taking behaviours (see Arria et al., 2014). These products are often strategically marketed towards the young consumer ( Reissig et al., 2009), with 30–50% of adolescents and young adults now known to consume them ( Seifert et al., 2011). Energy drinks are soft drinks that manufacturers claim boost performance and endurance ( Meadows-Oliver and Ryan-Krause, 2007), with the main active ingredient being caffeine ( McLellan and Lieberman, 2012). The relatively recent introduction of ‘energy drinks’ to the consumer market has been highlighted as a cause for concern (e.g. In the context of the current study, the thresholds in question relate to the group as a whole, with potential sensitivity to caffeine being defined by the participants being children. It is important, therefore, to identify thresholds above which negative effects might occur. This is concerning because many children and adolescents are frequent caffeine consumers (for instance, a recent US study found 73% of children to consume caffeine on a given day Branum et al., 2014). Children are often considered as sensitive individuals because of their size and developing central nervous system. A sensitive individual might experience adverse effects at a lower dose than less sensitive individuals. However, it has been advised that those who are highly sensitive should not consume >400 mg/d, in order to avoid headaches, drowsiness, anxiety, and nausea ( Nawrot et al., 2003). When consumed in moderation it appears that there are no serious adverse health effects associated with its use by adults ( Nawrot et al., 2003) or children ( Higdon and Frei, 2006 Mandel, 2002). Short-term effects of caffeine consumption include enhanced mood and alertness ( Ferré, 2008 Kaplan et al., 1997 Lorist and Tops, 2003), improved exercise performance ( Doherty and Smith, 2004), increased blood pressure ( Riksen et al., 2009), improved ability to remain awake and mentally alert after fatigue ( Smit and Rogers, 2002), faster information processing speed and reaction time, and heightened awareness and attention ( Cysneiros et al., 2007). Findings from the current study increase our knowledge regarding associations between caffeine intake and stress, anxiety, and depression in secondary school children, though the cross-sectional nature of the research made it impossible to infer causality.ĭose-dependent effects of caffeine on behaviour However, coffee was found to be the major contributor to high overall caffeine intake, providing explanation as to why effects relating to this source were also apparent. Initially, effects were also observed in relation to caffeine consumed specifically from coffee. After adjusting for additional dietary, demographic, and lifestyle covariates, positive associations between total weekly caffeine intake and anxiety and depression remained significant, and the effects differed between males and females. The present study used data from the Cornish Academies Project to investigate associations between caffeine (both its total consumption, and that derived separately from energy drinks, cola, tea, and coffee) and single-item measures of stress, anxiety, and depression, in a large cohort of secondary school children from the South West of England. Children are a potentially sensitive subgroup, and especially so considering the high levels of caffeine currently found in energy drinks. Previous research suggests that effects of caffeine on behaviour are positive unless one is investigating sensitive groups or ingestion of large amounts.
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